Music of the Baroque period, which some authorities see as beginning as early as 1570 in Italy and ending during the second half of the 18th century, in such countries as England and Spain, has a number of characteristics in style and spirit, including the use of the basso continuo and the belief in the doctrine of the affections. The emphasis on contrast (of texture, pace, volume etc.) in the music of the earlier Baroque, as compared with that of the late Renaissance, is also a distinguishing characteristic.

In general, Baroque art is considered elaborately decorative, dramatic, flamboyant, and emotional.  The intense desire to express an idea, a feeling, or the artists' deep convictions and emotions often led to excesses in all forms of art.

- Had its inception in Italy as part of the Counter-Reformation
- The Baroque spirit became an equally vital part of the Protestant Reformation
- The struggle between Roman Catholics and Protestants over religious issues, political power,
and the ownership of land brought about the Thirty Years' War
- Rise of absolute monarchies and the unification of national states play an important role in
the creation of national styles
- The courts of Louis XIV and Louis XV of France, and the Hapsburgs of Spain and Austria
stimulated the production of large, spectacular forms of musical expression like opera
- Smaller courts, such as those of the German princes and dukes (Dukes of Weimar and
the Princes of Anhalt-Coethen), were influential in cultivation intimate music for salon and chapel
- Worldwide intensive colonization during the 17th and 18th centuries gave rise to the wealthy
merchant class, which was the basis for rich, independent cities (like Venice and Hamburg)
Suitable climate for commercial theatre -- opera
- Scholarly inquiry became much more important
Discoveries through the application of inductive reasoning were spectacular in the sciences
Influenced musicians to apply methods of science to problems of music
Bach's "Art of the Fugue"
Rameau's "Treatise on Harmony"
Well-tempered tuning
Perfection of the violin family
- Literature and music abounded in affectations and expressive feeling
Doctrine of Affections

II.  Function of Music

- An increasing amount of religious music for instruments used for nonliturgical purposes
Preludes, Postludes, Musical backgrounds for quasi-religious purposes
Weddings, Dedications of buildings, Installations of civil or religious officials
- Much of the music written in the latter part of the Baroque was written for amateur musicians
Performed in the households of the aristocracy and the wealthy class
Music for private entertainment was cultivated in these households
Dinner music, dances, and even ensemble concerts
A substantial portion of the music was instrumental
- In the large wealthy courts, ballets and operas were first performed as special entertainments
for princes and courtiers
- Opera soon developed into a popular form of public entertainment
- Performances of purely instrumental music were rarely given for the general public
- Oratorio was the religious counterpart of the opera
Not as popular (not as big a spectacle) as opera
- Secular cantatas were written for special festive occasions
- Many compositions were written for the purpose of instructing the prospective musician
Bach's "Little Organ Book" was written to instruct his four musical sons
Geminiani's "The Art of Playing on the Violin" was written as a systematic pedagogy

III.  Style and Performance Practice

- Two styles flourished side by side
1)  the Renaissance style, or "stile antico" or "prima practica"
which had carried over into the Baroque
2)  the new Baroque style, called the "stile moderno"
 
"Stile moderno" was characterized by several stylistic compositional devices peculiar to the Baroque itself.  One of these devices was given the Greek name of "monody" in which the melodic line was supported by a very simple chordal accompaniment.  Strictly speaking, it is in homophonic style.  A technique was employed in this style in which the melodic line was something midway between speech and song and was called "stile rappresentativo."  It was characterized by freedom of rhythm, dramatic pauses, and asymmetric phrases.

Another characteristic of Baroque music was the "stile concertato."  This style includes planned contrasts of instruments or voices against one another either as soloists or as groups.

The "stile concitato", or excited style, was a practice in which music illustrated the words or moods of the dramatic action.  The use of tremolo in the strings of the orchestra or rapidly sung syllables to a repeated note by the voice are typical of this style.
 

- Formal Organiztion
Thematic material continued to be developed in works that were wholly or partially contrapuntal
Fugue; Toccata; Chorale prelude
Homophonic instrumental works built upon simple repetition and contrast principles
The variation principle was a logical expansion and evolved into:
Theme and Variations; Passacaglia; Chorale variation
Solo keyboard works, especially organ and harpsichord
were written in a style that suggested improvisation
Such were often called fantasias
Text continued to dominate vocal musical forms (as in the Renaissance)
The establishment of major and minor tonalities
led to distinct phrase and period construction
The use of sequential patterning is seen in formal organization


- Melody

Melodic writing varies:
Declamatory style of the recitative
"Recitativo secco"  (dry recitative)
"Recitativo accompagnato" (accompanied recitative)
Extremely florid style of the late Baroque
"Fortspinnung" - a process of melodic writing in which short figures are developed into melodic lines of substantial length and complexity
Opera was the progenitor of the "bel canto" (beautiful singing) style
In the Baroque, melody gradually assumed vocal and instrumental idiomatic styles
Publications appeared that designated specifically whether the music was to be sung of played
Although, it was not uncommon to find purely vocal design
applied to instrumental writing and vice versa
In homophonic music, melody was essentially one of balanced phrase and period
usually in four or eight measures.  Although the upper melodic line was dominant, there existed a kind of polarity between the melody and the bass line, which was in itself a melodically conceived part.


- Rhythm

Except for recitative, repeated metrical units became the standard
Tempos were more constant
In part because of the importance of the moving basso continuo
Rapid change of harmony (brought by the basso continuo) made for a driving harmonic rhythm


- Harmony

Major-minor tonality replaced modal system of harmony
The chordal nature of harmony was reflected in the practice of figured bass
Chromaticism and dissonance were freely employed in Baroque music for expressive purposes
Tempered tuning was introduced
Made possible the chromatic changes that were necessary for extended modulation
Bach's "Well-Tempered Clavier" illustrates the possibilities


- Texture

Homophonic textures appear with increasing frequency
Abundant examples in opera, arias of all kinds, instrumental forms
such as sonata da camera, keyboard sonatas, and suites
The texture of most Baroque music is often thick and opaque
Polyphonic textures still popular, now achieved by tonal counterpoint
Used in religious choral works
Many types of instrumental compositions
Fugue; chorale prelude; variations on a "ground"
There was great emphasis on contrasting textures, especially in concertato style


- Instrumentation and Tone Color

The instruments of the Baroque were the forerunners of modern instruments
The violin family, for example, was perfected and replaced the viol of previous periods
Trio sonatas were written for one of the most popular ensembles of the Baroque
The solo sonata was actually written for three instruments:
solo instrument, bass, and keyboard (continuo)
The instrumentation of the orchestra was not fixed
Baroque orchestra was much smaller than modern ones;  consisted mainly of
strings and woodwinds
brass and percussion added for special occasions or effects
Much solo music was written for the high "clarino" register of the natural trumpet
often called the "clarin trumpet"
The Baroque organ was an instrument of great clarity and mellowness of tone
Contrasts in dynamics generally followed the Baroque practice of contrasting sonorities
Its limited volume and pureness of tone made it ideal for contrapuntal texture
The term "clavier" referred to all types of keyboard instruments
Especially the harpsichord and the clavichord
The harpsichord was eventually replace by the "pianoforte"
Invented in 1709 by Cristofori
In addition to the traditional vocal classifications (Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Bass), the Baroque added
the male or artificial soprano, the "castrati"
The countertenor, or male alto, continued from the Renaissance
Mainly for solo work and religious ensemble music


- Performance Practice

Baroque was the last period in which improvisation was a requisite for every performer
In the later Baroque, brilliant rapid ornamentation of a virtuoso type was known as "coloratura"
It sometimes also designated a particular type of soprano voice
Performers were expected to extend cadences with elaborate improvisation
Such improvisations became known as cadenzas
Closely allied to pure improvisation was the realization of figured bass
Much music was not even figured so the keyboard player was expected
to choose both the proper harmony and its patterns
By the end of the Baroque period, equal temperament was indicated by
the ever-increasing modulatory practice of composers
Writing for instruments became more idiomatic
But there was still freedom of choice of instruments in some pieces
Tremolo and Pizzicato were introduced in this period
Dynamic markings were used but very sparingly
Most dynamic changes were made by contrasting instrumentation
Signs and symbols were increasingly used to designate particular ornamentation
Many had personal meanings by composer or school
Tempo designations, such as "allegro," "andante," and "grave" were introduced
but bore imprecise meanings
Almost all composers were recognized as virtuoso performers as well
In the performance of opera, the "castrati" became internationally known
as virtuoso singers

IV.  Music for Voices

 
Single-Movement Forms and Structural Devices
Recitative
Aria
Arioso
Chorus
Motet
Anthem
Solo song


Composite Forms

Opera
Oratorio
Passion Music
Cantata
Mass

V.  Music for Instruments

 
Single-Movement Forms and Structural Devices
Toccata
Prelude
Ricercar
Fugue
Fantasia
Orchestral Overture
Theme and Variation
Ritornello Form
Passacaglia and Chaconne
Chorale Prelude


Composite Forms

Suite
Orchestral Suite
Sonata da Chiesa (Church Sonata)
Sonata da Camera (Chamber Sonata)
Keyboard Sonata
Solo Concerto and Concerto Grosso

VI.  Composers

Giulio Caccini
Claudio Monteverdi
Michael Praetorius
Girolamo Frescobaldi
Heinrich Schutz
Giacomo Carissimi
Jean-Baptiste Lully
Dietrich Buxtehude
Johann Pachelbel
Arcangelo Corelli
Henry Purcell
Alessandro Scarlatti
Francois Couperin
Antonio Vivaldi
Georg Philipp Telemann
Jean-Philippe Rameau
Johann Sebastian Bach
Domenico Scarlatti
George Frideric Handel
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi

VII. Historians, Theorists

Michael Praetorius (1571-1621)
Johann Joseph Fux (1660-1741)
Francois Couperin (1668-1733)
Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764)
Francesco Geminiani (1687-1762)